Urbanisation and Urban Processes

• Urbanisation: The increase in the proportion of a country’s population living in urban areas (cities and towns). Measured by the urbanisation rate (percentage of total population residing in urban areas).
• Urban sprawl: The uncontrolled, low-density expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural land, resulting in dispersed, car-dependent development patterns.
• Counter-urbanisation: The movement of people from urban centres to rural areas or smaller towns, driven by declining inner-city quality and improved rural infrastructure.
• Re-urbanisation: The return of population to inner-city areas through regeneration and redevelopment projects.
• New town: A planned urban settlement designed to relieve population pressure on an existing major city, featuring self-contained employment, services, and housing.
• Land use model: A theoretical model describing the spatial distribution of different urban functions within a city.

Urbanisation is driven by both rural push factors (poverty, lack of services, agricultural mechanisation reducing employment) and urban pull factors (employment, education, healthcare, entertainment). The rate of urbanisation varies across development stages: newly industrialising countries in Asia and Africa experience the fastest urban growth, while many developed nations have stabilised or are experiencing counter-urbanisation.

Urbanisation can be measured by:

$\text{Urbanisation Rate} = \frac{\text{Urban Population}}{\text{Total Population}} \times 100$

Hong Kong’s urbanisation rate exceeds 100% in a geographical sense because virtually the entire territory is urbanised. The population density in urban areas reaches extraordinary levels: Kowloon City district has recorded densities exceeding $100{,}000$ persons per km$^2$, among the highest globally.

Ernest Burgess proposed that cities grow in a series of concentric rings radiating outward from the Central Business District (CBD). The five zones are:

1. CBD: Central business and commercial activities, highest land values, densest development.
2. Zone of transition: Mixed use, including light industry and older residential accommodation. Often contains blighted housing and immigrant settlements.
3. Zone of working-class homes: Residential area for workers employed in the inner zones.
4. Zone of better residences: Middle-class housing with larger lots and newer construction.
5. Commuter zone: Suburban area where high-income residents commute to the city centre.

The model reflects bid-rent theory: land values decrease with distance from the CBD because accessibility declines.

$\text{Bid Rent} \propto \frac{1}{\text{Distance from CBD}}$

Homer Hoyt modified Burgess by showing that cities grow along transport corridors rather than in perfect circles. High-income residential areas develop along prestigious routes (waterfronts, main avenues), while industry follows railway lines and river corridors. The sector model accounts for the role of transport infrastructure in shaping urban form.

Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman proposed that most modern cities do not have a single centre but rather multiple nuclei or activity centres. These nuclei form around specialised functions: the CBD, university district, industrial zone, airport, and suburban shopping centres. This model best describes polycentric urban forms common in modern Asian cities.

Hong Kong’s urbanisation has been shaped by its unique geography (mountainous terrain with limited flat land), colonial history, and proximity to mainland China. The territory’s development can be divided into several phases:

• Pre-1950s: Urban settlement concentrated on Hong Kong Island (Central, Wan Chai) and Kowloon Peninsula. The New Territories remained largely rural.
• 1950s-1970s: Rapid industrialisation attracted massive rural immigration from China. Squatter settlements proliferated on hillsides. The 1953 Shek Kip Mei fire displaced 50,000 people and catalysed the public housing programme.
• 1970s-2000s: Development of new towns in the New Territories to accommodate population growth. The container port at Kwai Tsing transformed Hong Kong into a major logistics hub.
• 2000s-present: Urban renewal, reclamation controversies, and infrastructure megaprojects (Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge, Northern Metropolis development).

Hong Kong’s squatter settlements (known as “squatter areas” or “area of unauthorised development”) have been a persistent urbanisation issue. In the 1950s, approximately 500,000 people lived in squatter huts constructed on hillsides. The government responded through:

• Fire prevention measures and structural inspections
• Resettlement estate construction (the first generation of public housing)
• Squatter area controls restricting further development

As of recent years, approximately 100,000 people still live in rooftop structures and temporary housing, though the scale is far smaller than in the mid-twentieth century.

Hong Kong’s new town programme represents one of the most ambitious planned urbanisation schemes in Asia. The government has developed new towns primarily in the New Territories to decentralise population from the congested urban core.

Sha Tin was the first new town, designated in 1973. Located in a valley between mountains, it was built on reclaimed land in the Shing Mun River channel. Key features include:

• Population: approximately 700,000 (as of recent census data)
• Connected to the urban core by the MTR Tuen Ma Line (formerly East Rail Line)
• Self-contained with industrial estates, commercial centres, schools, and hospitals
• The Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works was the world’s first large-scale chemically enhanced primary treatment plant

Tseung Kwan O (also known as Junk Bay) was designated in 1982 and developed on former landfills and reclaimed land. Key features include:

• Population: approximately 480,000
• Connected by the MTR South Island Line (extended to Tseung Kwan O)
• Major facilities include the Hong Kong Institute of Technology, a racecourse, and the Ocean Park theme park
• Controversial siting of the incineration plant and landfills in the area

Tin Shui Wai was developed in the 1980s-1990s on former fish ponds in the northwestern New Territories. It became known as a “dormitory town” due to limited local employment, leading to social problems including high unemployment among women and domestic violence. This case illustrates the importance of balanced development in new town planning.

Hong Kong’s container port at Kwai Tsing has been a critical driver of economic development and urban transformation. At its peak, it was the world’s busiest container port (1994-2004), handling over 20 million TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) annually.

The port’s development required extensive land reclamation in the western harbour area. The Kwai Tsing container terminals occupy approximately 290 hectares of reclaimed land. The port’s function as a transhipment hub connecting mainland China to global markets exemplifies the concept of a gateway city.

However, the port’s relative importance has declined as mainland Chinese ports (Shenzhen, Guangzhou) have expanded. This shift has contributed to Hong Kong’s economic transition from a manufacturing and logistics economy to a services-dominated economy.

The Urban Renewal Authority (URA), established in 2001, replaced the Urban Council’s renewal functions. Urban renewal in Hong Kong faces the challenge of balancing:

• Heritage conservation (e.g., the Lee Tung Street “Wedding Card Street” redevelopment controversy)
• Community displacement (existing tenants and businesses relocated)
• Economic viability (redevelopment must be financially self-sustaining)
• Tensions between property developers and local communities

The Kowloon Walled City demolition (1993-1994) represents a major earlier urban renewal project, converting a densely packed, unregulated settlement into the Kowloon Walled City Park.

flowchart TD
    A[Urbanization] --> B[Key Concepts]
    A --> C[Core Principles]
    A --> D[Practical Applications]
    B --> E[Fundamental definitions]
    C --> F[Design patterns]
    D --> G[Real-world usage]

Cities as living organisms: Urbanisation is like a growing tree — cities expand outward (sprawl), sometimes people move back inward (re-urbanisation), and new branches (new towns) relieve pressure on the trunk.

Why it matters: More than half the world’s population now lives in cities. Understanding urban processes helps design livable, sustainable communities and manage resources efficiently.

The key insight: Land value decreases with distance from the CBD — this single economic force shapes everything from housing prices to land use patterns.

1. Compare models explicitly: When asked about urban land use models, note that Burgess assumes a single CBD with concentric growth, Hoyt adds sectoral variation along transport routes, and Harris-Ullman acknowledges multiple nuclei. Hong Kong’s polycentric structure (Kowloon, Central, Tseung Kwan O, Sha Tin) aligns best with the Harris-Ullman model.

2. Use specific data: Reference population figures, dates, and statistics for new towns and port throughput. For example, Sha Tin’s population grew from near zero in 1973 to over 700,000 today.

3. Evaluate strategies: When assessing urban renewal or new town programmes, discuss both benefits (decentralisation, improved living standards) and costs (displacement, social disruption, financial burden).

4. Link to wider themes: Connect urbanisation to other DSE topics including population distribution, industrial location, and environmental management.

5. Acknowledge limitations of models: Western land use models were developed for North American cities and do not fully account for Hong Kong’s extreme density, mountainous topography, or government-led planning approach. High-density, mixed-use development is the norm rather than the exception in Hong Kong.

Assuming all cities follow the Burgess concentric zone model: This model was designed for early 20th century American cities. Modern cities, especially Asian ones like Hong Kong, have multiple centres and don’t follow neat concentric rings.

Confusing urbanisation with urban growth: Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion living in cities. Urban growth is the absolute increase in urban population. A city can have urban growth without urbanisation if the rural population grows faster.

Forgetting that counter-urbanisation requires improved rural infrastructure: People don’t move back to the countryside unless transport, communication, and services are good enough. Without this, it’s just rural-urban migration.

• Population: Population studies are central
• Urbanization: Urbanisation is a key topic
• Climate: Climate affects geography